Most of this information in the case of Windows and Mac is proprietary.

For Windows I can say for certain that a close enough version of the NTFS file system driver has been written for Linux. You can look into that, there's also some documentation most of it written by Richard 'Flatcap' Russon (http://www.flatcap.org/ntfs/).

Documentation on the FAT Filesystem has been made public a long time ago with the intent that it would provide ample information for developers and engineers working on flash drives and things like that. (http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/hardware/gg463080.aspx)

Documentation on the Ext Filesystem used by Linux distributions can be found on the web easily. (Ext2 : http://www.nongnu.org/ext2-doc/ext2.html)

I have no clue what Mac uses but I bet it's some kind of proprietary abomination derived from an existing format (probably ext). This is just my opinion, do not take this as fact.

All these formats have some sort of structure that holds meta-data. The file is just a stream of bytes somewhere on the physical drive. Most filesystems should have a structure that stores at least the file's location (usually a starting cluster for each fragment of the file) and the file's size. The rest of meta-data is up to each file system to implement.

For example, the FAT Filesystem there are tables for each directory and each directory stores metadata about the files it contains. But it also has a FAT table that holds the fragment locations for each file contained in the filesystem.

The NTFS Filesystem has a big table called the Master File Table that holds a record of metadata for each file contained by the filesystem including the table itself. Each record holds all the metadata including the file location on the physical drive for each fragment. However, the directory structure is held as data in directory file records. However, the NTFS has even more structures that hold information about the files such as the USN Journal or the Volume Bitmap.

To access the meta-data contained by the file system you either have to parse the raw volume or to use functions exposed by the operating system's API. The API doesn't generally give you all the information you want about the metadata. For example, Windows API will give you functions to iterate through the USN Journal to find information about a particular file, but you can't get the MFT attributes of a file directly.

Again, I have to stress out that even with most of the documentation on these proprietary file systems, you're taking shots in the dark since it's their intellectual property. Some if not most of the documentation that we have now comes from reverse engineering.